^13:1 Let every soul be subject to higher powers. For there is no power except from God, and those who are ordained of God. [n. 1016]
^13:2 Therefore, he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God. And they who resist purchase to themselves damnation. [n. 1025]
^13:3 For princes are not a terror to the good work, but to the evil. Do you will then to not fear power? Do what is good: and you will have praise from the same. [n. 1029]
^13:4 For he is God’s minister to you for good. But if you do what is evil, be afraid: for he carries not the sword in vain. For he is God’s minister: an avenger to execute wrath upon him that does evil. [n. 1034]
^13:5 Therefore one must be subject of necessity: not only for wrath, but also for conscience’s sake. [n. 1036]
^13:6 For therefore also you pay tribute. For they are the ministers of God, serving unto this purpose. [n. 1037]
^13:7 Render therefore to all men their dues. Tribute, to whom tribute is due: custom, to whom custom: fear, to whom fear: honor, to whom honor. [n. 1042]

1016. After showing how man should behave toward God by using the gifts of his grace, the Apostle now shows how man could comport himself toward his neighbor.

First, in regard to superiors;

second, toward all, at owe no man any thing (Rom 13:8).

In regard to the first he does two things:

first, he urges men to the subjection owed to superiors;

second, to show the sign of subjection, at wherefore be subject of necessity.

In regard to the first he does three things:

first, he proposes his teaching;

second, he assigns a reason, at for there is no power but from God;

third, he draws the conclusion, at therefore.

1017. In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some believers said that they should not be subject to earthly powers on account of the freedom they received from Christ, since it says in John: if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed (John 8:36). But the freedom granted by Christ is a freedom of the spirit, by which we are set free of sin and death, as was said above: the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set me free from the law of sin and death (Rom 8:2). The flesh, however, remains subject to slavery, as was stated above (Rom 7:14). Therefore, the time when a man freed by Christ will not be liable to any subjection, either spiritual or carnal, will be when Christ delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power (1 Cor 15:24).

In the meantime, as long as we live in the flesh, we are subject to temporal rulers; hence it says in Ephesians: servants, obey your masters in the flesh (Eph 6:5). And that is what the Apostle says here: let every soul be subject to the higher powers.

What he calls higher powers are men established in power, to whom we owe subjection according to the order of justice: be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors as sent by him (1 Pet 2:13).

1018. And he says indefinitely higher powers so that we may subject ourselves to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they are wicked: be submissive to your masters, not only to the kind and gentle, but also to the overbearing (1 Pet 2:18).

1019. The words every soul are to be taken as a synecdoche for every man, as we find in Genesis, that soul shall be destroyed from among his people (Gen 17:14).

And he uses this figure of speech because we owe subjection to the authorities from the soul, i.e., from a pure will: not serving to the eye, as though pleasing men, but from the soul with a good will (Eph 6:6).

1020. Then when he says, for there is no power, he presents the reason for this admonition:

first, because subjection is honorable;

second, because it is necessary, at he who resists.

In regard to the first he does two things:

first, he presents two principles;

second, he concludes from them, at therefore, he who resists.

1021. First, therefore, he speaks about the source of power, saying: there is no power except from God.

For whatever is said in common of God and creatures, comes to creatures from God, as in the case of wisdom: all wisdom comes from God (Sir 1:1). But power is said of God and of men: God does not abandon the powers, since he is powerful (Job 35:5). Hence, it follows that all human power is from God: the most high rules the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he will (Dan 4:17); you would have no power over me, unless it had been given you from above (John 19:11).

1022. But a passage in Hosea seems to be against this: they made kings, but not through me. They set up princes, but without my knowledge (Hos 8:4).

The answer is that royal power or the power associated with any other dignity can be considered from three aspects. First, in regard to the power itself, which is from God through whom kings reign (Prov 8:15).

Second, in regard to the way in which power is obtained: from this aspect, power is from God sometimes, namely, when a person obtains it rightfully, as it says in Hebrews: one does not take the honor upon himself, but he is called by God, as Aaron was (Heb 5:4). But sometimes it is not from God but from a perverse desire of a man, who obtains power through ambition or some other unlawful manner: have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves? (Amos 6:13).

Third, it can be considered in regard to its use, and then it is from God sometimes, as when a person observes the precepts of divine justice in using the power granted him: by me kings rule (Prov 8:15). But sometimes it is not from God, as when a person uses power given to him to act against divine justice: the kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord and his anointed (Ps 2:2).

1023. The question arises whether the power to sin is from God.

The answer is that the power by which one sins is from God. For it is the same power that is employed in sinning and in doing right: but that it is directed to good is from God; that it is directed to sin is due to a defect of the creature, inasmuch as it springs from nothingness.

1024. Second, he states that those that exist have been instituted by God, the reason being that God made all things through his wisdom, for it says in a psalm: in wisdom have you made all (Ps 104:24). But it is the function of wisdom to dispose of things in order: she reaches mightily from one end of the earth to the other, and she orders all things well (Wis 8:1). Therefore, divine effects must be orderly: do you know the ordinances of the heavens? (Job 38:33).

But God has established a twofold order in his effects: one, whereby all things are ordained to him: the Lord has made everything for himself (Prov 16:4); the other is that whereby divine effects are ordained one to another, as Deuteronomy says of the sun and the moon and the stars, that he made them to serve all nations (Deut 4:19).

1025. Then when he says, therefore, he who resists, he draws the conclusion.

For if the power of rulers is from God and nothing is from God without order, it follows that the order whereby the lower are subjected to the higher powers is from God. Therefore, he who acts against the order and resists the power, resists the ordinance of God: they have not rejected you, but they have rejected me (1 Sam 8:7); he who rejects you rejects me (Luke 10:16).

But to resist the divine order is contrary to the good of virtue. Hence, whoever resists power in anything that pertains to the order of this power acts against virtue.

1026. Then when he says, those who resist, he shows that this subjection is not only virtuous but necessary.

First, he states his proposition;

second, he proves it, at for rulers.

1027. He says, therefore: it has been stated that he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God, and this should be avoided as contrary to virtue. Yet there are many who have no love for virtue and who do not detest things contrary to virtue. Such persons must be compelled to avoid evil by punishments. In regard to this he says: they who resist the divine ordinance incur to themselves damnation for acting against the order of authority.

This can be understood in one way as referring to eternal damnation, which is incurred by those who refuse to be subject to authority in matters in which they should be subject. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiron, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as it says in Numbers (Num 16:20).

In another way it can be understood as referring to the punishments imposed by the authorities themselves: the dread wrath of a king is like the growling of a lion; he who provokes him to anger forfeits his life (Prov 20:2).

1028. But against this is the fact that the apostles and martyrs seem to have resisted rulers and authorities and did not receive damnation from God as a result but rather a reward.

The answer is that the Apostle is now speaking of one who resists a lower power as established by God. But the divine order requires that a lower power not be obeyed in opposition to a higher one, as even in human affairs a governor is not obeyed against an emperor, nor a bailiff against a king. And every human power is set under the divine power, so that no human power should be obeyed against God, as it says in Acts: we must obey God rather than men (Acts 5:29).

1029. Then, when he says, for rulers, he assigns the reason for what he had said.

First, he presents the reason;

second, from this reason he draws a useful teaching, at do you will then to not fear the power?;

third, he shows the necessity of this teaching, at but if you do evil.

1030. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that those who resist power, incur damnation, for rulers, who are here called powers, are not a terror, i.e., a cause of terror, to good work, i.e., because of good conduct, but to the evil, i.e., because of bad conduct.

It seems that this should be understood with reference to the reason for establishing rulers. For the reason why rulers are established is in order that those who are not inclined by any love of virtue to avoid evil and do good, may do so by fear of punishment: a king who sits on the throne of judgment winnows all evil with his eyes (Prov 20:8). And according to this interpretation it says that rulers are not a terror to good conduct but to bad as regards what rulers do in virtue of their office, as Isaiah says, but the prince will devise such things as are worthy of a prince (Isa 32:8).

This can also refer to evil rulers, who are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. For even though they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do good, the latter have no reason to fear; because if they endure it patiently, it turns out for their good: even if you do suffer for justice’s sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled (1 Pet 3:14).

From what is said here the reason can be assigned why those who resist authority incur condemnation, whether it be the punishment inflicted by rulers on those who rebel, or the damnation by which men are punished by God. For if rulers are a terror to bad conduct, it follows that those who resist their authority are acting wickedly and thus are the cause of their temporal and eternal punishment.

1031. Then when he says, do you will then to not fear, he draws a useful teaching from what he had said, namely, how to avoid the terror of rulers.

First, he suggests by his question that this is desirable, saying: do you will then to not fear power? As if to say: this should appeal to a person: as the roar of a lion, so is the terror of a king (Prov 20:2).

1032. Second, he shows how to avoid this fear, saying: do what is good. For it says in Proverbs: righteous lips are the delight of a king (Prov 16:13), and in a psalm: he who walks in the way that is blameless shall minister to me (Ps 101:6).

1033. Third, he shows the effect of this, saying: If you do what is good, you will not only avoid evil but you will have praise from the same. This is obvious when one considers the reason why authority is established. For it is established not only to keep us from evil conduct through fear of punishment but also to induce us to good conduct through rewards, as it says in 1 Peter: be subject to governors as sent by the emperor to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right (1 Pet 2:14). This is also true of evil rulers, whose unjust persecution ends in praise for those who endure it patiently: we call those happy who were steadfast (Jas 5:11).

1034. Fourth, he assigns the reason, saying: for he is God’s minister to you for good. This is clear in regard to the proper order of rulers. For they are under the authority of God, the supreme ruler, as his ministers: because as ministers of his kingdom, you did not rule rightly (Wis 6:4). But the ruler and the ministers work for the same end: like the magistrate of the people, so are his officials (Sir 10:2). Therefore, just as God works for the good of those who do good, so also do rulers, if they perform their office properly.

Furthermore, even wicked rulers are God’s ministers for inflicting punishments according to God’s plan; although this is not their intention: ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger, the staff of my fury . . . but he does not so intend (Isa 10:5). Behold I will send, and take all the kindreds of the north, says the Lord, and Nabuchodonosor the king of Babylon my servant: and I will bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against all the nations that are round about it (Jer 25:9). And also because such wicked rulers sometimes afflict good men, God permitting, who profit thereby; for we know that in everything God works for the good with those who love him (Rom 8:28).

1035. Then when he says but if you do evil, he shows the necessity of this teaching.

For it has been stated that if you do right, you will not fear authority; but if you do evil, be afraid, because you have reason to fear: destruction to evildoers (Prov 10:29); wickedness is a cowardly thing, condemned by its own testimony (Wis 17:11).

Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for he carries not the sword in vain. He uses language in keeping with the practice of rulers who carried the instruments of punishment as signs of their power; for example, a bundle of rods for whipping, and axes or swords for killing: be afraid of the sword, for wrath brings the punishment of the sword (Job 19:29).

Third, he explains the reason, saying: he carries, I say, the sword, because he is God’s minister, an avenger to execute his wrath, i.e., God’s wrath, i.e., his just judgment, upon him that does evil: behold, I will gather together all your lovers . . . and I will judge you as adulteresses . . . and I will deliver you into their hands (Ezek 16:37ff.). Those who do evil are an abomination to kings, for the throne is established by justice (Prov 16:12).

From this it is clear that it is not only lawful but meritorious for rulers to execute vengeance on the wicked, when it is done out of zeal for justice. Hence: and it shall be wages for his army, and for the service that he has done me against it (Ezek 29:19ff.).

1036. Then when he says, therefore, one must be subject, he draws the main conclusion, saying: therefore, i.e., for the reasons given, one must be subject to rulers of necessity, namely, because this is necessary for salvation, or be subject voluntarily to the necessity whereby the ruler’s power inclines you to do right of necessity; not only for wrath, i.e., to avoid vengeance, which pertains to the second reason, but also for the sake of preserving a good conscience, which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists authority resists what God has appointed: admonish them to be subject to princes and powers (Titus 3:1).

1037. Then when he says, for therefore also you pay tribute, he urges men to show the sign of their subjection to authority:

first, he mentions the sign of subjection;

second, he urges them to render the sign of subjection, at render therefore.

1038. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he mentions the signs of subjection, saying: for therefore also you pay tribute, i.e., because you are subject, you should pay taxes as a sign of that subjection. Therefore, in a complaining way it says: the princess of the provinces was made tributary (Lam 1:1). They are in fact called contributions, for the very reason that the subjects contribute them to their lords.

1039. Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for they are the ministers of God, serving, on behalf of God and the people, unto this purpose, i.e., to receiving tribute.

As if to say: everyone should make a living from his ministry, for it says in 1 Corinthians: who tends a flock without getting some of the milk? (1 Cor 4:7). And therefore, since our rulers minister to God in governing, they should receive taxes from the people as wages for their ministry and should not look upon it as a reward. For the special reward of a ruler is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in book five of the Ethics. When this does not satisfy him, he becomes a tyrant. But this should not be understood as referring only to human praise or honor, because such a reward would be futile, but to divine praise and honor, which is bestowed on those who rule well: O monarchs over the people, honor wisdom, that you may reign forever (Wis 6:21).

Furthermore, they receive these taxes as sustenance, and rulers labor for the peace of all. Hence it is said: I urge that supplications be made for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a quiet and peaceful life (1 Tim 2:1); pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow (Bar 1:11).

1040. Clerics are free of this debt because of a privilege granted by rulers, which is in fact equitable by nature. Even among the gentiles those who were devoted to divine things were free from taxation. For we read in Genesis that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the entire land of Egypt except the land of the priests, which had been given them by the king, and to whom also a certain allowance of food was given out of the public stores (Gen 47:20–22). And further down it says in the whole land of Egypt, the fifth part of the harvests was paid except for in the land of the priests, which was free from this condition.

But this is also equitable, because just as kings have care of the public good in temporal affairs, so God’s ministers in spiritual matters. And so by ministering to God in spiritual matters, they are making a return to the king for his labor in procuring a peaceful life for them.

1041. But it should be noted that although he says that taxes are owed to rulers as a wage for their labors, rulers can sin in two ways by accepting taxes.

First, if they do not procure the people’s welfare but are intent only on seizing their goods. Hence it says in Ezekiel: you eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings, but you do not feed the sheep (Ezek 34:3).

Second, if they violently take more than the law permits and more than the people can bear. Hence it says in Micah: hear, you heads of Jacob and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not you who tear the skin from my people, and their flesh from their bones? (Mic 3:1).

1042. Then when he says, render therefore, he admonishes them to render the above-mentioned sign of subjection.

First, in general, saying: Inasmuch as taxes are owed to rulers, as to God’s ministers, render therefore to all men their dues. From this it is clear that justice requires subjects to render rulers their due: to the king was brought one who owed him ten thousand talents (Matt 18:24); render, therefore, to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s (Matt 22:21).

1043. Second, he specifies debts that are paid publicly, saying: tribute, to whom tribute is due, for these are paid to the ruler that he might govern the country in peace and quiet: he saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant (Gen 49:15). Custom to whom custom is due; this is paid to the ruler in certain places as tolls, for the repair of roads and for safe travel. Or they are the expenses incurred when the ruler travels through his country.

Second, he sets out those things which should be rendered interiorly. Here it should be noted that a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is lord and uses his power to prevent evil men from doing evil: if I am the Lord, where is my fear? (Mal 1:6). Hence he says: fear to whom fear is due: my son, fear the Lord and the king (Prov 24:21). But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor: if I am a father, where is my honor? (Mal 1:6). Therefore, he adds: honor to whom honor is due: honor the king (1 Pet 2:17). The opposite view is expressed in Leviticus: you shall not defer to the powerful (Lev 19:5).

But this should be interpreted as forbidding a person to deviate from justice to benefit the powerful. Hence it continues: but in justice shall you judge your neighbor.