chiasm: a literary form and poetic device that involves a sequence of components repeated in inverted order (named for the crossover pattern of the Greek letter chi: X). A chiasm may include any number of terms, forming either a fully doubled scheme (A, B, C, C’, B’, A’) or a scheme with an isolated center (A, B, C, D, C’, B’, A’). For example, Sir 33:18 is a chiasm with a fully doubled scheme (A, B, B’, A’): “(A) Hear me, (B) you who are great among the people, (B’) and you leaders of the congregation, (A’) listen.”

Decalogue: the Ten Commandments (Hebrew: “Ten Words”) that God gave to Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 20:1–17; Deut 5:6–21). The Decalogue, from the Greek for “ten words” (deka-logos), constitutes the moral foundation of the covenant between God and Israel (Exod 34:27–28; Deut 4:13). Jesus did not abolish the Ten Commandments (Matt 5:17) but affirmed that observing them remains necessary to gain eternal life (19:16–19).

Diaspora: the dispersion of the Jewish people or communities outside the land of Israel. Unlike the term “exile,” which always implies a forced deportation, “diaspora” can refer to either a forced or a voluntary resettlement of the Jewish population. The term is used both in Second Temple Judaism (5th cent. BC–AD 70) and in the New Testament.

Hades: the dark and gloomy underworld and abode of the dead where it was believed that no one could praise God. Hadēs is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word Sheol. Generally, Old Testament writers did not have a clear idea of life after death and believed that all the deceased went to Hades (Ps 6:5; Sir 17:27; 21:10; Isa 38:18–19). The New Testament also refers to Hades (Luke 10:15; 16:23; Eph 4:9), while also teaching that Jesus has overcome it (Matt 16:18; Acts 2:27; Rev 1:18; 20:13–14).

Hellenism: the influence of Greek culture, language, and customs on the peoples ruled by the Greek Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great (333–323 BC). While most Jews could not entirely escape the influence of Hellenism, some rightly saw it as a threat to their cultural and religious identity and the Jewish way of life.

Hellenistic period: the period from the reign of Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) to the rise of the Roman Empire (31 BC), during which Greek culture flourished throughout the eastern Mediterranean world.

inclusio: a literary device in which a word or phrase appears at both the beginning and the end of a section, creating a strong sense of beginning and closure. All content between the repeated word or phrase is “included” in that unit (e.g., Sir 5:1–8).

Koine: the widely spoken form of the Greek language that became the lingua franca (common language) of much of the Mediterranean world from the fourth century BC to the sixth century AD. Koine Greek is a simplified form of classical Greek dialects such as Attic, Ionic, and Doric. It served as the language of the Septuagint and the New Testament.

Midrash: from the Hebrew verb darash, meaning “to seek or inquire”; plural “Midrashim.” Refers to both rabbinic interpretative methods and collections of Jewish commentaries on the Hebrew Scriptures. Midrashim tend to bypass the literal meaning of the text, seeking instead its allegorical sense to enhance its meaning for the reader. A Midrash can be either haggadic (expounding on biblical narratives) or halakhic (expounding on legal texts). Important Midrashim include, from the Tannaitic period (first to third century AD): Mekhilta de-Rabbi Yishmael (Exodus), Sifra (Leviticus), and Sifre (Deuteronomy, Numbers); from the Amoraic period (third to sixth century): Genesis Rabbah, Leviticus Rabbah, Lamentations Rabbah, Esther Rabbah; from the sixth to the thirteenth century: Midrash Rabbah, Tanhuma, Pesiqta de Rab Kahana, Midrash Tehillim (Psalms).

Mishnah (Hebrew: “repetition” or “study”): a collection of oral traditions and laws compiled by Rabbi Judah the Prince ca. AD 200. Written in Hebrew, the Mishnah consists of six major parts or “orders”: Zeraim (Seeds), on agricultural laws; Moed (Seasons/Festivals), on the Sabbath and festivals; Nashim (Women), on marriage, divorce, and family law; Neziqin (Damages), on civil and criminal jurisprudence; Qodashim (Holy Things), on sacrificial cult and dietary laws; and Tohorot (Purifications), on ritual defilement and purification. These orders are further divided up into sixty-three tractates. The Mishnah is the oldest postbiblical codification of the Jewish Oral Law.

numerical proverb or saying: a saying that highlights some feature of nature, society, ethics, or theology through a structured numerical pattern. It typically begins with a number, followed by a list of related items. Often the number is expressed as x, x-plus-one for emphasis; for example, Sir 23:16–18: “Two sorts of men multiply sins, and a third incurs wrath . . .” (see also 25:1–2, 7–11; 26:5–6, 28; 50:25–26).

parallelism: a stylistic device that involves two or more parallel lines of verse that complement each other in some way. In a synonymous parallelism, two lines repeat the same thought or a similar thought (e.g., Ps 19:1); in an antithetic parallelism, the lines stand in contrast to each other (e.g., Ps 1:6); in a synthetic parallelism, the second line completes a thought introduced by the first line (e.g., Ps 1:3). Parallelism is considered a central feature of Hebrew poetry.

postexilic period: the period following the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile to the land of Israel. It is typically identified with the Persian period, beginning with the Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC) and ending with the fall of the Persian Empire (331 BC). The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were written during this period. Although the years following the Persian period are also considered postexilic, they are usually referred to as the Hellenistic period.

Ptolemies: a Greek dynasty that reigned over Egypt from ca. 323 to 30 BC, also known as the Ptolemaic period. The Ptolemaic dynasty was founded after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC by his general Ptolemy I Soter (reigned 304–285 BC). The Ptolemies controlled Judah from 301 to 198 BC, after which the Seleucids took over the area.

sage (Hebrew hakham, “wise man”): a wise person, mentioned frequently in the biblical wisdom books, who possesses not only knowledge or skill but also the ability to apply experience intelligently to various situations in life. A sage acknowledges and reveres God, aware that wisdom is rooted in the fear of the Lord. Today, in modern Judaism, “sages” refers to the great rabbis of previous generations.

Second Temple period: the time between the building of the second Jewish temple in Jerusalem in 516 BC (Ezra 6:14–15) and its destruction by the Romans in AD 70. Some consider the period to begin with Cyrus’s edict of 538 BC, which allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem (Ezra 1:2–4). The events narrated in the Gospels and other New Testament books take place in the late Second Temple period.

Seleucids: a Greek dynasty founded after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC by one of his generals, Seleucus I Nicator. The Seleucid Empire encompassed Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Asia Minor. The Seleucids seized control of Judea from the Ptolemies of Egypt in 198 BC during the Fifth Syrian War. The severe persecution of the Jews by Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes led to the Maccabean revolt around 167 BC. Jonathan Maccabee negotiated peace with the Seleucids, gaining Jewish independence in 143 BC.

Shema (Hebrew: “hear” or “listen”): the Jewish creedal statement of faith in one God, which in its shortest form is expressed in Deut 6:4: “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God is one LORD.” The full passage includes a command to “love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might,” along with instructions to teach God’s commandments to one’s children and reflect on them in all circumstances (Deut 6:4–9). The synagogue recitation of the Shema also includes Deut 11:13–21 and Num 15:37–41. Jesus referred to the Shema as the great commandment (Matt 22:36–38). It represents the most fundamental expression of the Jewish faith.

Talmud (Hebrew: “study” or “learning”): a vast collection of rabbinic teachings, discussions, and commentaries consisting of the Mishnah and the Gemara—an Aramaic commentary on the Mishnah. There are two Talmuds: the Palestinian (or Jerusalem) Talmud, compiled in the fifth century AD in the land of Israel, and the more extensive Babylonian Talmud, edited about a century later (mid-sixth century AD) in Babylonia. Both Talmuds are organized according to the orders and tractates of the Mishnah. The Babylonian Talmud is considered to be the most authoritative collection of rabbinic texts and the definitive compilation of Jewish Oral Law.

Torah: the Hebrew term for the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). Although commonly translated as “law,” the term more accurately means “instruction” or “teaching.” In a broader sense, Jews also use the term “Torah” to designate the body of ancient rabbinic writings known as the “oral Torah.” They sometimes even call the entire body of sacred Jewish writings “Torah” (somewhat analogous to the Catholic concept of sacred Tradition).

Tosefta (Hebrew: “supplements”): a rabbinic compilation of teachings that supplement the Mishnah, completed in the third or fourth century AD. The Tosefta follows the same organizational structure as the Mishnah but is considered to hold lesser authority.

typology: the study of persons, events, or things in the Old Testament that symbolically prefigure and anticipate (as “types”) the fulfillment of God’s plan in the person of Christ.
virtue, acquired: a virtue developed through the repetition of certain human acts; for example, a person becomes generous by practicing repeated acts of generosity.
virtue, infused: a virtue or “power of the soul” directly imparted to or “poured into” the soul by God (compare Sir 15:5), in contrast to “acquired virtues” that are attained through the repetition of human acts.

Vulgate: the Latin translation of the Bible produced by St. Jerome (340–420), commissioned by Pope Damasus around AD 383. It soon became the authoritative Bible in the Catholic Church. The Council of Trent (1545–63) declared it to be the authorized Latin translation of the Church. A revised version, the Clementine Vulgate, was published in 1592. It was superseded by the Nova Vulgata (New Vulgate), published in 1979, which relies on more trustworthy manuscripts and modern critical methods.